The Story Of Ona Judge Staines Told - 1590 Words

The story of Ona Judge Staines told by Erica Armstrong Dunbar, expands the knowledge of the new nation’s stance on slavery to the modern American. As the story goes on, we learn the different views of the states and how they differ from the north to the south. Ona Judge’s life gives us personal insight on the struggles of being a slave in the new nation. On July 4, 1776, Americans cheered with joy and celebrated independence. The spilt from England proved Americans had what it takes to govern their own country. The American people were finally free, or at least the majority were free. The slaves of the new nation saw no change, and no freedom. They still lived their lives as property in human bondage. The location and the family the†¦show more content†¦Vernon and travel to the North where the temporary capitol would reside. The couple had to make a decision of which slaves would come to live in the north. Seven slaves would make the journey with the Washington ’s, one of them being 16-year-old Ona Judge. They had to be careful with who they chose and the chosen had to be the most trusted slaves. The north was occupied with much more progressive people than the south. Slavery was still existent, but it was being questioned in many American minds. Washington was hesitant to leave, â€Å"Fear, regret, and concern spilled onto the pages of the president’s diary.† The time finally came for the the Washington’s and their entourage to leave. This day would’ve been extremely hard for not only the President and First Lady, but for the slaves who’s families were being torn apart. This was an inevitable event for slaves all around the new nation. No matter what family you were owned by, even the best of families tore slave families apart. To the owners they did not see their slaves lives as family, it was only business and money. The day they left for New York, Betty would have lost not only her daughter Ona , but also her son Austin. The family would have mourned together not knowing when or if they ll ever see each other again, which was a hard reality for all slaves in the nation. The travel to New York first stopped in the City of Brotherly Love. This would be

Social Issues And Politics School - 994 Words

As far as my 18 year old mind can remember the most influential sponsor in my literary development was school. Sure, my parents also influenced what I read and even taught me how to read, but school was what developed my creative literary ability. Reading is the gateway to becoming a good writer, and regardless of what the student reads, or the topic of interest, a child can apply it to their writing. My gateway was social issues and politics, I loved reading and learning more about them, therefor I also loved writing and voicing my opinion on them. However, social issues and politics, didn’t have as big of a structural influence on my literary ability as school did. The main sponsor that held it all together, that intertwined all of these skills, and turned me into the good or terrible writer I am today, is school. Oh how I loathed writing, especially in fourth grade. I loved reading, I could read all day, but I loathed writing, and I blame this on my fourth grade teacher. Sh e was a mean old lady, who would make us â€Å"free write† for an hour every day, while she chatted away on her phone. Which nine year old child can write for an hour? Certainly not me! To make matters worse, I was a chatty Cathy. I was the class president and loved talking. Instead of free writing I would start up a conversation with my desk neighbor, then my teacher would move me, then I’d start a conversation with my new desk neighbor. This cycle continued for a while until my teacher finally moved meShow MoreRelatedThe Folly Of Secularism By Jeffrey Stout1305 Words   |  6 Pagespolitical, social shifts are changing through analysing firstly the controversy itself, then laà ¯cità ©. Secondly, through looking to different aspects of French secular society; law, media and education. and thirdly, as per Stouts framework, discusses how the topic takes us to the heart of the most pressing issues of today, Gender politics, French state personality/nationhood and the Islamophobia that is a result of all of these things.The headscarf affair was generated by multiple social anxietiesRead MoreBefore The Individual Referendums For Scottish Independence1519 Words   |  7 Pageson single topics, for single issue parties and in referendums more than elections. If 16 year olds could vote more needs to be done to gain young people’s interest in politics. â€Å"Young people are interested in politics, and do have faith in the democratic process. 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He says California used to be ?gboth model and magnet for the nation—in its economic opportunities, its social outlook, and its high-quality public services and institutes?h; however, California started to fade after the passage of Proposition 13, the initiative of tax limits (7). Schrag?fs work clearly shows what is the problem in today?fs California, and it is easy to understan d even for those who have little knowledge of politics. By focusingRead MoreVoting Of The United States1353 Words   |  6 Pagesdone by Harvard University, young adults have not only have lower voter participation compared to the older population, but their participation had been gradually falling overall from 1968 to 2004. Consequently, this long standing practice has led to issues with underrepresentation of America’s youth and in my opinion has aided in the gradual fall of voter participation overall now and will lead to an even increased fall in the future. The youth of America make up about a quarter of the eligible votersRead MoreKnowledge Management Within An Organization877 Words   |  4 Pagesinformation which contribute to divergence and politics. In our school organization there is consistent conflict between central office, school leaders, and faculty members in regards to political processes, the resolving process of issues, and accountability practices. The core issue of our school s challenges in regards to how the mentioned factors is the management of information by school leaders as directives are sent from central office school district officials that in some manner affectRead MoreHow Politics Is The United States?904 Words   |  4 Pagesrelationship to politics in the United States? Honestly I am not too involved in politics in the United States, I believe that the topic and what it stands for goes further than I truly understand. I limitedly participate in politics, as in I voted during the preliminary election, but it was the first time I ever have since I was 18 and I’m now 29 years old. I think that politics is a very edgy topic, it can be seen and interpreted in so many different ways to different individuals. Politics to me isRead MoreWomen s Suffrage By Susan B. Anthony891 Words   |  4 PagesIn American history, the United States had several of social movement. People created social movement because their want society to aware in problem of society. Some want society to know about famine, oppression and poverty in their life. Others want society to know about inequality. One of the most famous and most powerful movement is â€Å"Women’s Suffrage†. The movement of women that call for their right to vote. Susan B. Anthony, the woman who influences in progress of women’s suffrage. Belief ofRead MoreOver Time, Texas Has Experienced Periods Of Dominance By1242 Words   |  5 Pageschanging social climate and changing demographics, are all factors that may influence which party will experience the greatest power in the future. In order to determine the role that population, demographics, and social climate will have on party dominance, we must explore both parties, as well as the changes that are occurring in Texas. This paper will discuss the major priorities of the Republican and Democratic Parties and the changes that are occurring in relation to demographics and social climateRead MoreResearch Schools and Pluralism1280 Words   |  6 Pagesmind of every individual, but at times these views correspond establishing research schools. In the world of politics, research schools have different ontological and epistemological assumptions which allows them to view the state and power differently. Their p rimary concern is to figure out the nature of the world and be able to figure out what one is going to focus on and disregard. The four main research school are pluralism, rational choice, institutionalism and Marxism. Pluralism embraces societal

Substance Abuse It’s affect on Individuals, Family, Friends, and Society Free Essays

The purpose of this essay is to shed light on substance abuse and its effect on individuals, family, friends, and society. This study examined reliable data regarding substance abuse, the effects it has on individuals, families, friends, and society. Included also are the risk and dangers associated with methamphetamines, and the problems associated with the drug trafficking industry worldwide. We will write a custom essay sample on Substance Abuse: It’s affect on Individuals, Family, Friends, and Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now Treatment programs are available and can be beneficial to the individual as well as society. The preliminary results will show how substance abuse affects all people, businesses, and organizations involved. The conclusion can also be drawn that substance abuse and its effects are problems that, if treated properly, and the correct tactics are used in controlling its supply, can be managed to some extent. Substance abuse effects not only the person abusing drugs but also family, friends, and society as a whole. The costs associated with substance abuse is astonishing; these costs include medical care, court costs, the cost of treatment, court proceedings, and costs associated with crimes involving drugs. Prisons are overcrowded and the battle to keep illegal drugs out of the prison system continues. The problems associated with substance abuse are not only in the United States but Worldwide. New programs and tactics to treat and fight substance abuse have to be implemented to keep up with the ever changing drug industry. Individuals who abuse tobacco or other addictive drugs are at a higher risk illness, injuries, imprisonment, and death. Some of the health risks associated with substance abuse include: dependency, impairments to brain function, cancers, STDs, HIV/AIDS, withdrawals, depression, seizures, liver, lung, and kidney problems, death, and many others (â€Å"Health Risks Associated with Alcohol and Drugs†, n.d. ). The brain can suffer many affects from substance abuse, from addiction, mild anxiety and depression, to extensive manic and other psychopathic responses. Severe withdrawal symptoms from â€Å"physiological depressants such as alcohol and benzodiazepines are hyperactivity, elevated blood pressure, agitation and anxiety† (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2005). After withdrawing from stimulants a person will feel depressed, tired, and withdrawn. â€Å"Any substance taken in very large quantities over a long enough period can lead to a psychotic state† (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 2005). Cancer is another health problem associated with substance abuse. Intravenous drug use, unprotected sex, and heavy drinking can cause liver damage and result in cirrhosis and cancer of the liver. Diseases such as hepatitis C can be contributed to unprotected sex and intravenous drug use; sometimes leading to liver diseases. According to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) (2013) estimates that, â€Å"in 2011 a total of 14. 0 million people injected drugs worldwide, which corresponds to 0. 31 percent of the population aged 15 – 64† (Extent of health consequences of drug use : injecting drug use.para 1. ). People infected with the hepatitis C virus (HCV) are high among intravenous drug users. The UNODC (2013) â€Å"estimates that the global prevalence of HCV among people who inject drugs is 51. 0 percent, meaning that 7. 2 million people who inject drugs were living with HCV in 2011† (HIV among people who inject drugs. para. 2) HIV/AIDS and STDs are common among drug users and be spread through unprotected sex and intravenous drug use, which is a behavior known to be associated with substance abusers. UNODC (2013) estimates that of the 14.0 million people who inject drugs, â€Å"1. 6 million are living with HIV; that represents a global prevalence of HIV of 11. 5 percent among people who inject drugs† (HIV among people who inject drugs. para. 1). Premature death due to drug overdose has been on the rise. According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), (2013), â€Å"in 2010, 30,006 (78%) of the 38,329 drug overdose deaths in the United States were unintentional, 5,298 (14%) of suicidal intent, and 2,963 (8%) were of undetermined intent† (The Problem, para. 3). The statistics show that men are more likely to die than women and that â€Å"American Indians/Alaska Natives had the highest death rate, followed by whites and then blacks; the highest death rates among people 45-49 years of age; and the lowest rates among children less than 15 years of age† (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2013, Risk Factors for Drug Overdose). Drugs are now to blame for more deaths than motor vehicle accidents, for the first time (ABC news). According to The National Institute on Drug Abuse (2013),† an estimated 10.3 million people aged 12 or older reported driving under the influence of illicit drugs during the year prior to the survey† (How Many People Take Drugs and Drive). Drugs also play a major role in traffic accidents; According to Science Daily, â€Å"between 1998 and 2009, there were more than 44,000 fatally injured drivers with drug-test information—one quarter of whom tested positive for drugs†(Deadly Drugged Driving: Drug use tied to fatal car crashes, 2011, para. 11). According to MADD (n. d), â€Å"over 1. 2 million drivers were arrested in 2011 for driving under the influence of alcohol or narcotics† (Statistics, para.2). Death of a loved one affects the family members and friends, not only emotionally but also financially. There are very few states that offer assistance in funerals and those that do only pay a small amount (Funeral Ethics Organization, 2012). Substance abuse can affect families in many ways. Children of parents who abuse drugs are at a higher risk of child abuse and of being born prematurely, low birth weights, and other problems which occur at birth. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (n. d.), â€Å"there may be as many as 45,000 cocaine-exposed babies born per year† (Magnitude: Addiction Affects Everyone: Prenatal. ). Women who smoke during pregnancy deliver babies that have a lower average birth rate than those of women who do not (NIDA). The risk to children in homes where the parents manufacture drugs is even greater. â€Å"Approximately 50% to 80% of all child abuse and neglect cases substantiated by child protected services involve some degree of substance abuse by the child’s parents†, according to National Institute on Drug Abuse: Magnitude (Addiction Affects Us All: Child Abuse). The emotional and financial burdens of living with a person who has a substance abuse problem can be overwhelming. Some of the other effects include the risk of HIV, increased risk of substance abuse in children born to addicted mothers, conduct problems in children living in homes where there is substance abuse present, marital problems, emotional and physical abuse, and legal problems (â€Å"Substance Abuse Affects Families†, n. d. ). Many times children born to or living in homes where the parents have a substance abuse problem, the children will end up in foster care. According to American Humane Association, † the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University, by the American Humane Organization estimates in a 2005 report states that substance abuse is a factor in at least 70 percent of all reported cases of child maltreatment† (Parental Substance Abuse Can Lead to Child Abuse and Neglect). The number of children living in foster care is a financial burden to society as a whole. Society is affected by substance abuse in a number of ways including increased crime rates, lower property rates in drug infested areas, and financial burdens to federal, state, and local governments, and taxpayers. According to the Drug War Facts Organization (1998-2013), â€Å"of the 1,552,432 arrests for drug law violations in 2012, 82.2% (1,276,099) were for possession of a controlled substance, and 276,333 were for the sale or manufacturing of a drug† (Basic Data, para. 1). This along with stricter sentencing policies has caused an overcrowding of jails and prisons. Not only are the jails and prisons filled with people convicted of drug possession, sales, and manufacturing, but they also consist of people convicted of crimes committed to support their habits (Drug War Facts Organization Basic Data, section 6). The annual costs per federal inmate according to The Urban Organization (2012), are â€Å"$21,006 for minimum security, $25,378 for low security, $26,247 for medium security, and $33,930 for high security† (Prison is expensive) According to the Vera Institute of Justice,(2012), â€Å"among the 40 states surveyed, representing more than 1. 2 million inmates (of 1. 4 million total people incarcerated in all 50 states prison systems), the total per-inmate costs averaged $31,286 annually†(Total Taxpayer Cost Per Inmate, p. 8, para 1). There are also state and federal costs associated with training within the federal and state law enforcement agencies and prisons. Methamphetamine labs not only put the safety of citizens at risk but they also cost the state, federal, and local government as well as the taxpayers a considerable amount of money. People who live near these labs, law enforcement personnel, and emergency responders are all at risk of being seriously injured or killed. Law enforcement means and allocated expenditures are strained because of the costs associated with disposing of and cleaning up of methamphetamine labs. According to the National Drug Intelligence Center, â€Å"the average cost to clean up a methamphetamine production laboratory is $1,900; given that an average of 9,777 lab seizures were reported to NCLSS each year between 2002 and 2004, the economic impact is obvious† (The Impact of Drugs on Society, para. 6). There was also additional training needed for dealing with these labs which was not only an added financial burden but increased workloads (National Drug Intelligence Center: The Impact of Drugs on Society, para. 6). The burden felt within the law enforcement system is not the only industry that has been affected by drug use. As of 2009, most drug users aged 18 and over, were employed and admitted to having used drugs while employed. The turnover and absenteeism, according to the Office of National Drug Control Policy (n. d), â€Å"from 2002 to 2004, full-time workers aged 18-64 who reported current illicit drug use were more than twice as likely as those reporting no current illicit drug use to report they had worked for three or more employers in the past year†(Turnover and Absenteeism). Current drug users were also more likely to miss more days of work. According to United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (1998), â€Å"estimates by the United States Department of Labor in the mid1990s suggest that drug use in the workplace may cost American business and industry between $75 billion and $100 billion annually in lost time, accidents and higher health-care and worker’s compensation costs† (Economic consequences of drug abuse and trafficking, p. 17, para. 3). School performance is lower for drug users than for non-drug users according to the whitehouse. gov website. The fight against drug abuse is not only in the workforce, schools, and society in the United States, but worldwide. According to Stein (2012), an author for the Los Angeles Times, in one article out of a series of articles they are doing on addiction states that â€Å"about 200 million people around the world use illegal drugs every year† (Stein, 2012). The study contained information regarding four drug categories; opioids, amphetamines, cocaine, and marijuana. The rates of drug users are higher in developed countries. Social factors and the accessibility of drugs also affect the rates. Drug use fell behind tobacco and alcohol use in mortality rates, but when considering the lost years of life drugs rated higher at 2. 1 million, according to Stein (Stein, 2012). Drug trafficking is another problem felt worldwide; according to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), â€Å"given the large quantities of licit substances that make their way across oceans and continents every day, in containers and even small boats, maritime trafficking poses a particularly knotty challenge for the authorities†(Executive Summary: Maritime trafficking poses challenge to authorities, para.1). Maritime seizures are usually larger than those seizures of trafficking by road or air (Executive Summary: Maritime trafficking poses challenge to authorities, para. 3). New trafficking routes are being looked for as the old ones are being discovered, causing the authorities to have to step up their efforts in controlling the drug trafficking industry. New drugs are being created daily to not only meet with the demand for them but to help traffickers avoid detection. With this increase of new drugs the number of new narcotics under international control had be increased. With all the drugs and the drug abuse in the United States as well as around the world the need for treatment programs and tactics to fight drug abuse is on the rise. There are five primary treatment models that professional in the field of substance abuse can use: psychoeducational models are used in educating patients about substance abuse, related behaviors and their consequences; skills development groups basically try to teach individuals the skills they will need to maintain a drug free lifestyle.; cognitive-behavioral groups are designed to change the clients thinking patterns; support groups help reinforce the clients’ efforts regarding their thinking and emotions and help them develop better interpersonal skills while in recovery. There are also relapse prevention treatment groups, communal and culturally specific treatment groups, and expressive groups (Center for Substance Abuse Treatment: Group Therapy, 2005). One or all of these types groups may be used in the treatment of substance abuse and in different settings. There are different types of substance abuse facilities available for the treatment of addiction. â€Å"Facilities operated by private, nonprofit organizations account for 58% of treatment facilities. Private, for-profit facilities (29%), and the remaining facilities are operated by local governments (6 percent), state governments (3 percent), Federal Government (2 percent), and tribal governments (1 percent)† (Substance abuse treatment facilities: New data, 2010: Major Findings, para. 1). Programs are also being made available in jails and prisons to help reduce the number of returnees to the prison system. Substance abuse treatments vary in price but can be very expensive although it is believed that the benefits outweigh the costs. The National Institute on Drug Abuse (2012) states that, â€Å"according to several conservative estimates, every dollar invested in addiction treatment programs yields a return of between $4 and $7 in reduced drug-related crime, criminal justice costs, and theft† (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012: Is drug addiction treatment worth its cost?, para. 2). When healthcare savings are figured in to that savings it can exceed costs by a 12 to 1 ratio, so while the costs may seem great the benefits can be even greater. Family and friends can help addicts find treatment and resources to help pay for the treatment as well as being supportive while they are in treatment (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012: Is drug addiction treatment worth its cost? ) There are several websites that are available to help obtain the information needed to locate the right treatment facility. The effectiveness of treatment varies depending on the individual and the treatment facility and type. According to NIH, â€Å"research that tracks individuals in treatment over an extended periods, most people who get into and remain in treatment stop using drugs, decrease their criminal activity, and improve their occupational, social, and psychological functioning†(National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2012: How effective is drug addiction treatment? , para 1). Substance abuse affects individuals, family members, friends, and society as a whole. There are astonishing costs related to drug abuse, crimes committed related to drug use and producing drugs, and the cost associated with authorities who fight against drugs. The jails and prisons are overcrowded and the staffs are overworked. Substance abuse is not a problem associated with just the Unites States, but worldwide. There are treatment options and facilities available, although; they can be costly. However, statistics show that the benefits far outweigh the costs in most cases. How to cite Substance Abuse: It’s affect on Individuals, Family, Friends, and Society, Essays

Drama and Plays free essay sample

Theater in the Philippines is as varied as the cultural traditions and the historical influences that shaped it through the centuries. The dramatic forms that flourished and continue to flourish among the different peoples of the archipelago include: the indigenous theater, mainly Malay in character, which is seen in rituals, mimetic dances, and mimetic customs; the plays with Spanish influence, among which are the komedya, the sinakulo, the playlets, the sarswela, and the drama; and the theater with Anglo-American influence, which encompasses bodabil and the plays in English, and the modern or original plays by Fihpinos, which employ representational and presentational styles drawn from contemporary modern theater, or revitalize traditional forms from within or outside the country. The Indigenous Theater The rituals, dances, and customs which are still performed with urgency and vitality by the different cultural communities that comprise about five percent of the country’s population are held or performed, together or separately, on the occasions of a person’s birth, baptism, circumcision, initial menstruation, courtship, wedding, sickness, and death; or for the celebration of tribal activities, like hunting, fishing, rice planting and harvesting, and going to war. In most rituals, a native priest/priestess, variously called mandadawak, catalonan, bayok, or babalyan, goes into a trance as the spirit he/she is calling upon possesses him/her. While entranced, the shaman partakes of the sacrificial offering, which may be a chicken, a pig, a carabao (depending on the gravity of the spirit’s anger) or simply rice uncooked or in cakes, rice wine, and betel nut. This act, which represents the death of the supplicant at the hands of the spirit, adapts itself to the occasion for which the ritual is held. Among the Tagbanua of Palawan in southern Philippines, the ritual of the diwata, which crowns a series of activities addressed to the spirits of ancestors, is held after the rice harvest on the last three days of the last moon, to ask the supreme deity Mangindusa, the other gods, and the spirits of ancestors for a bountiful harvest and for the well-being of the supplicants. For this most significant socioeconomic and religious event, the interior of the home of the babalyan is decorated with stripped palm leaves and bamboo slats with Tagbanua writing and designs. In the center of the large room, the ritual offerings are carefully arranged: a small wooden boat hanging from the ceiling (on this the ancestors â€Å"ride†); a mat on which are spread the bowls or plates of uncooked rice, jewelry, betel nuts, rice cakes (which are later consumed by the people), ginger, onions; a ritual bamboo swing which the babalyan rides or chants on; a stool on which are arranged more food offerings; and the all-important wine jars set in a line in front of the swing and provided with oil-rubbed straws through which the spirits will sip the rice wine (wine is not found in the spirit world so it is the one item that best attracts spirits to the celebration). To the heady music of gongs and drums, the babalyan’s assistant, dressed in a sarong skirt, tight blouse, and sash from which the wavy long knife called karis hangs, opens the ritual by performing several dances and shaking in both hands the ugsang (stripped palm leaves) with bells, in honor of Mangindusa who is supposed to be perched on the roof of the house. This part ends with the babalyan letting out a scream and pulling the ceremonial staff attached to the ceiling to denote that Mangindusa has departed. Soon after, the babalyan herself, also in a similar skirt and blouse, but with a black hood covering her face, works herself into a trance, as she sips wine and swings herself in the middle of the room. Then she dances, balancing on her head a bowl with rice or a bowl with candles or a karis, while brandishing the palm leaves or two porcelain bowls or a piece of cloth in her two hands, as she is followed by an assistant. To the continued beating of the gongs, the babalyan may then shake the palm leaves violently and strike the sides of the wine jar angrily and sip wine, denoting that a spirit has come down. As other spirits take turns possessing her, the babalyan’s movements may change—one spirit may prompt her to sip wine or softdrinks or water; another may want to smoke cigarettes with those participating in the ritual; others may dance with a long knife or bolo on their heads; or oil the women’s hair; or lead the singing of the spirit song. The series of possessions is capped with those present drinking and smoking and participating in the activities of the ritual (Fox 1982). Interestingly, these animistic rituals survive today even among Christianized Filipinos. In Isabela, the atang-atang ritual of the Ibanag features a gaily decorated small bamboo raft with offerings of rice, oil, eggs, cigarettes, rice cakes, and a little chick representing the soul of the sick person. Around this raft situated on the ground, two women dance, drink, and chant Christian prayers to cure the sick. Later, the women take oil from the raft and rub it on the face, legs or hands of the sick. Aside from rituals, tribal dances which were more often than not mimetic may also be considered as proto-dramas. A majority of these dances, which mark important events like baptism, courtship, marriage and even death, depict important tribal activities. The tribes of the Cordillera have dances that reenact the hunt for and the killing of a boar, as well as the practice and ways of headtaking; the Aeta of Zambales perform dances which show the techniques of gathering wild honey in the forest as well as hunting for fish; the Tausug of Sulu boast of dances that represent how oranges are picked or how not to catch a mudfish. The most important dance, however, among most Philippine tribes is the war dance. The war dance of the Mansaka of Davao del Norte imitates the movements of model warriors called bagani, as the latter fight with spears, bolo, and shields. Other tribal dances which may be considered proto-dramas as well are the dances which are playful imitations of animal movements, like the monkey, fish, and fly dances of the Aeta of Zambales in Luzon; the hawk dances of the Higaonon in Mindanao; and the butterfly, monkey, and bird dances of the Tausug and Sama in Sulu. Mimetic too are some of the customs associated with courtship, marriage, and death among the ethnic communities. Of the courtship customs, the most common is the debate between a male and a female, which may employ verse, song, and dance. The Maranao panonoroon has a boy and a girl chanting metaphorical verses to each other, with the boy offering his love to the girl and the latter warding off his verbal advances. The Cebuano balitaw features antiphonal songs performed by male and female, which talks not only of love, but of the problems of married couples and rural workers. Among the Tagalog, the debate in song and dance becomes an exchange of spoken verses in the duplo, where poets called bilyako use proverbs, riddles, the pasyon, and the awit as well as contemporary events to advance their suits to the bilyaka of their choice. In the 1920s, the duplo became a formal debate on an issue, and was called the balagtasan. Mimetic customs related to weddings include: the Tagalog pamanhikan, where representatives of the families of both the boy and the girl speak in metaphorical language to settle the dowry or bridal price; and the Bilaan samsung, where, after the bride-price is paid, the bride and the groom are â€Å"forced† to sit beside each other, and their hair â€Å"tied together† even if the bride â€Å"objects. † Finally, mimetic customs related to death are, exemplified by the baraning usa of the Aeta of Camarines, where a deer made of banana stalk and twigs â€Å"hunted down† and offered to the dead to take to the next life. As a whole, indigenous dramas are well integrated into the lives of tribal Filipinos. These rituals, dances, and customs express their very beliefs and depict their activities and material culture. Furthermore, they help fulfill the basic needs of the tribe for a good harvest and victory in war, as well as the physical and spiritual well-being of the sick, the newly born, the youth, and the newly wed members of the tribe. Finally, these plays bind the members of the tribe in a stronger bond for the common good. Rituals of baptism, circumcision, marriage, as well as the dances that instruct children on the techniques of looking for honey or fishing or fighting in war, clearly work for the collective good. A good harvest and plentiful honey and fish obviously benefit the tribe, while the display of war dances teaches the young boys the primary duty of manhood, namely, fighting to ensure survival of the tribe against all aggressors. Similarly, the customs associated with courtship, marriage, and death provide a way of expressing personal emotions in a socially accepted way, and of informing all of bonds that will have to be respected by everyone, so that harmony may reign in society. The Spanish Colonial Tradition In the three centuries of Spanish rule from 1565 to 1898, the Spanish colonizers, specifically the friars, showed a keen awareness of the power of theater both as a tool for the Christianization of the natives and as a magnet to attract the latter to the pueblo or town which constituted the foundation of Spain’s empire in the archipelago. Consequently, the Spanish regime gave rise to and popularized the various types of secular and religious plays, the former usually staged to celebrate town fiestas, and the latter, to highlight important Catholic liturgical feasts or seasons like Christmas, Lent, or Easter. Many of these plays and playlets continue to be popular among the Christianized folk who live in the rural areas and compose the majority of the total population. Of the plays, the most important is the komedya, also known as moro-moro, linambay, arakyo, which is a play in verse introduced into the country from Spain in the 16th century and institutionalized in the 19th century. This theatrical spectacle takes from 3 to 15 hours and several sessions to perform. It has two principal types: the secular, which concentrates on epic stories of love and vengeance; and the religious, which narrates the lives of patron saints. Elaborate marches, lengthy choreographed fighting between individuals and/or armies, and magical artifices wrought by heaven to save saints or Christians in distress ensure the popularity of the komedya as principal entertainment during town fiestas. Deriving stories from native versions of European metrical romances, the orihinal (script) of the secular komedya usually depicts the conflict between Christian princes and princesses and their Moorish counterparts. Typical of the stories of the secular komedya is the arakyo still performed in several towns of Nueva Ecija, which revolves around the search by Elena and Constantino for the Cross of Christ and the obstacles they encounter in that search. As performed in Penaranda, Nueva Ecija in 1987, the story of the arakyo remains basically what it was at the turn of the century when this play, also known as tibag, first became popular. After his father, King Constancio of Rome and Constantipole, is killed by the Turks, the young Constantino sits on the throne and brings war to the Emperador of Turquia to avenge his father’s death. Worried about the outcome of the war, Elena is assured by a voice from heaven that victory would be given to Constantino, but that he and Elena should in turn look for the cross on which Christ died. Constantino wins the war and kills the Emperador of Turquia. Meanwhile, Queen Elena has left for the Holy Land to look for the Redeemer’s cross. Princess Ordelisa of Turquia now bids farewell to her father, Emperador Costroas, and leads a mission to the Christian court. She demands Constantino’s surrender and exacts vengeance on Constantino’s general, Lucero (with whom she is secretly in love), who with his companions made trouble when they joined the tournament in Turquia some years back. Meanwhile, Queen Elena has found the cross, but loses it to the Moors who intercept and attack her. Informed of this, Constantino sends Lucero on a mission to Turquia to demand that Costroas give back the cross. The mission fails to retrieve the cross, but it brings Lucero face to face with Ordelisa once again. The general pledges his undying love for the Moorish princess and proves it by laying down his arms. But the other Moors pounce on, imprison, and sentence him to death by beheading. Ordelisa, who is now convinced of Lucero’s love, decides to free him. In the end, a big battle is waged between the Christians led by Constantino and Elena, and the Moors under Costroas and Ordelisa. Elena is about to kill Ordelisa when Lucero intervenes and begs for her life. Defeated, the Moors agree to be baptized â€Å"so that the dirt of their souls may be washed away. † Traditional are the arakyo’s sets and costumes, its stylized gestures and rhetorical delivery of verses, its marcha (slow march) and paso doble (fast march), accompanied by band music, as well as its scenes of love between Moorish princess and Christian general, of the embahada (mission) between kingdoms, of dances to relieve long stretches of monotonous dialogue, of theatrical artifices. Supported by hermanos mayores (sponsors) and by donations from individuals, the arakyo, like many traditional komedya today, is cherished by the townspeople as a form of dance-prayer or an extended dramatic devotional to the Santa Cruz so that it may shower favors and blessings on both kin and community. Not as entertaining as the secular komedya, the religious komedya called komedya de santo, hardly survives to our day. Typical of these didactic komedya which were used by Spanish friars to teach Christianity and inculcate Christian colonial values is one still staged in Iligan City—the Comedia de San Miguel (Play of San Miguel), written circa 1890. Also called Yawa-Yawa (literally, Devil-Devil), this komedya tells the story of how Lusbel rebelled against God, and how God, through the Seraphim, ordered San Miguel Arcangel (Iligan City’s patron saint) to quell the heavenly revolts and drive Lusbel, his cohorts and the Seven Capital Sins represented by a huge sevenheaded monster, to hell where they are punished forever for their pride and rebelliousness. Of the Philippine religious plays, the most outstanding and enduring has been the sinakulo — also known as the pasion y muerte (passion and death), tanggal (literally, to remove) or centurion— which probably saw light in the mid-18th century. Staged commercially or as community activity during Lent and often for eight consecutive nights during Holy Week, the sinakulo started as the dramatization of the Pasyong Genesis, the most popular verse narrative on the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ, and later augmented by apocryphal stories from other pasyon and religious books like the Martir sa Golgota (The Martyr of Golgotha) and popular reading materials like Liwayway. In Tambo, Buhi, Camarines Sur, the passion play known as tanggal is a folk interpretation of events of the passion that is distinguished both by its charm and naivete as by its faith and fervor. For almost three whole days and with financial support from the barrio, older members of an itinerant group of tanggalista (members of the tanggal group) chant the Bicol pasyon and other episodes from the Creation of the World to the Search for the Holy Cross by Elena and Constantino, while the younger members of the group dramatize the actions narrated by the chant. Most popular are the following: doleful scenes like Christ saying farewell to his mother before he goes to his martyrdom; comic scenes featuring the antics of Judas Iscariot, the great comedian in any passion play; scenes of spectacle like the storm at sea where the Apostles take a little boat ride on Lake Buhi (sometimes with an escort of carabaos); colorful scenes like the descent of the Holy Spirit on Mary and the Apostles; and finally, dramatic scenes like the Assumption and Coronation of the Virgin in heaven. In urbanized towns like Cainta, Rizal, the sinakulo has reached heights of technical sophistication in terms of sets which are more â€Å"realistic,† costumes which are more historically accurate, dialogue which approaches colloquial prose, and lighting which produces effects of night and day, darkness and lightning. In spite of all these, the sinakulo’s world view, whether in Buhi or Cainta, and like those of other religious plays, remains as simple as that of a medieval morality play where absolute and certain is the victory of good over all forces of evil. As popular but more numerous than the komedya and sinakulo are the playlets, which attest to the importance placed by the Spanish friars and the local priests after them on teaching Catholicism. Many religious playlets in the Philippines merely embellish the Catholic liturgy or dramatize more fully the feasts narrated by that liturgy, especially the events of Christ’s birth, passion, death, and resurrection. Others are performed to honor saints on their feast days. Some of the most important playlets are associated with the Christmas season. The Tagalog panunuluyan (seeking entry) and Bicol kagharong (going from house to house) dramatize through a street procession the search by the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph for an inn in Bethlehem on Christmas eve. The pastores (shepherds) may be a playlet depicting the journey of the shepherds, their encounter with Satan, and their adoration of the Christ Child, as may be seen in Cebu and Leyte; or simply a group of males and females in colorful costumes dancing and singing Spanish and native Christmas songs in front of different houses, as practiced in certain towns of Bicol. The ninos inocentes found in the Tagalog areas, may be a short play showing the beheading of babies below two years of age as ordered by Herod, as was the custom in some towns of Rizal; or a parade of higante (giants) as in Gasan, Marinduque. Lastly, the tatlong hari (three kings) may be a simple procession highlighting three males costumed as kings, as in Floridablanca, Pampanga, and Mabitac, Laguna, or a short play reenacting episodes in the search for and adoration of the Infant Jesus by the Three Kings, as in Gasan, Marinduque. The Lenten season, specifically the Holy Week, has many more playlets associated with it. The osana (hosanna) found in almost all Christian areas, features the blessing of the palms and reenacts Christ’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem on Palm Sunday. The via crucis (way of the cross), observed in most Catholic parishes, is a procession of the image of the Nazareno or Christ carrying the cross, which meditates at 14 altars where the Stations of the Cross are enshrined. In Paete, Laguna, the stations on the meeting of Christ and his mother, and Christ and Veronica are dramatized with chanted dialogue and moving images. The paghuhugas (washing), performed in almost all Catholic and Aglipayan churches, dramatizes the washing of the feet of the Apostles by Jesus on Maundy Thursday. The huling hapunan or ultima cena (last supper), staged in some Tagalog and Bicol provinces, reenacts the Last Supper in an actual dinner eaten by the priest and 12 men playing the apostles. The siete palabras (seven words) observed in many Catholic parishes features a lifesize image of Christ hanging on the cross, which moves its head each time one of the seven last words is spoken (with accompanying â€Å"thunder and lightning†) during the three hours before Christ’s death at 3 P. M. on Good Friday. The soledad (solitude), still done in Bicol and Pangasinan, is a procession of the image of the grieving Mater Dolorosa after the â€Å"burial† of her son on Good Friday or Black Saturday. This stops at designated houses where songs are performed to lighten Mary’s sorrow. The pagkabuhay (resurrection) of Lubao, Pampanga, reenacts with special effects the Resurrection of Christ in the early hours of Easter Sunday. The salubong (meeting), also known as sugat, encuentro, sabet, Alleluya, and padafung in Catholic and Aglipayan parishes all over the country, dramatizes the meeting of the Risen Christ and the Virgin on Easter Sunday morning in dance and song. This is climaxed by the removal of the Virgin’s black veil by a little angel, who descends from the â€Å"heaven† of the four-posted galilea to sing â€Å"Regina Coeli, Laetare† (Queen of Heaven, Rejoice). The hudas, found in Pampanga and Bulacan towns, shows the burning of the effigy of the traitor Iscariot. The moriones (helmets) of the Marinduque parishes dramatizes the story of the Roman soldier, Longino, who while guarding the tomb of Christ witnesses the Resurrection, becomes a Christian, proclaims Christ’s divinity, and is beheaded by Pilate’s soldiers. The major genre of playlets performed in honor of patron saints is the moros y cristianos popular in Manila and many towns all over the archipelago in the 19th century. Today, this dance drama survives in a few isolated towns. Known by different appellations, these playlets still dramatize the conflict between Christians and Moors/non-Christians. Notable examples of this genre are the kinabayo of Dapitan, Zamboanga del Norte, which depicts the conflict of the Moors and Christians in the Battle of Covadonga; the palo-palo of Ivana, Batanes, which survives as a dance with sticks between Moors and Christians; and the sayaw of Ibajay, Aklan, which underscores the defeat of the Moors in the hands of the Bisaya. A form of moros y cristianos, too, is the bakahan (battle) of San Antonio, Laguna, which reenacts the fight between San Miguel Arcangel and the Hudyo (Jews) on Good Friday. The secular and religious plays and playlets are drastically different in content and function from the indigenous plays. While the latter depict the life and activities of the tribe, the dramas with Spanish influence either showcase alien stories of princes and princesses from ideal worlds peopled by the â€Å"beautiful† white race or narrate the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ and the saints of the Catholic Church, which were introduced into the country by the Spanish friars. Moreover, the komedya propagated and continues to propagate a colonial mentality that looks up to the European as superior in race and religion, even as the plays and playlets on the life and sufferings of Jesus Christ and the saints discourage selfinitiative, a critical attitude, and decisiveness, preferring to forge a passive will that bows to autocracy and its hierarchy of authority. It is not difficult to see how these plays contributed to the shaping of the native Filipino as colonial during the Spanish period and how they continue to discourage the development of persons and citizens in contemporary Philippine so ciety. Introduced into the country by Spanish artists in 1878 or 1879, the sarswela had its heyday from 1900 to 1940 in Manila and the provinces. Original sarswela were created in Tagalog by writers like Severino Reyes, Hermogenes Ilagan, Patricio Mariano, Julian Cruz Balmaseda, Servando de los Angeles, and composers like Fulgencio Tolentino, Juan S. Hernandez, Leon Ignacio, Alejo Carluen, and Bonifacio Abdon; in Cebu, by writers like Vicente Sotto, Buenaventura Rodriguez, Piux Kabahar, and Fernando Buyser; in Pampanga, by writers like Juan Crisostomo Soto, Aurelio V. Tolentino, Felix Galura, and Urbano Macapagal; in Bicol, by writers like Asisclo Jimenez, Jose Figueroa, and Valerio Zuniga; in Iloilo, by writers like Valente Cristobal, Jimeno Damaso, Angel Magahum, and Jose Ma. Ingalla; in the Ilocos, by writers like Mena Pecson Crisologo, Mariano Gaerlan, Leon Pichay, Isaias Lazo, and Barbaro Paat; and in Pangasinan, by writers like Catalino Palisoc and Pablo Mejia. Usually in three acts with music and dancing interspersed within the prose dialogue, the sarswela focuses on a love story between members of the upper classes, which is spiced up with comic love episodes between servants, and made more relevant with satirical attacks on usurers, corrupt politicians, oppressive landlords, lazy husbands whose husbandry is wasted on cockfighting and other vices and, lately, students hooked on drugs and â€Å"Saudi† recruiters who take advantage of naive workers. One of the most popular sarswela of all time is Dalagang Bukid (Country Maiden), 1919, which tells of the love between a pretty young flower girl, Angelita, and a young handsome law student, Cipriano. Principal obstacle to their love is a rich old man, Don Silvestre, who frequents the kabaret where the dalagang bukid sells flowers, determined to get the girl for himself. Taking advantage of their addiction to cockfighting and cardgames, Don Silvestre lends Angelita’s parents all the gambling money they want, certain that they would then easily agree to deliver the girl to him as payment for their debts. Moreover, Don Silvestre uses his money to make sure that Angelita wins the beauty contest that means so much to Angelita’s parents. In the end, after a series of romantic misunderstandings and comic misinterpretations, Angelita is crowned queen, but sidesteps Don Silvestre’s trap by eloping with Cipriano, who has just finished his law studies. The traditional sarswela now survives only in the Ilocos, from where about half a dozen commercial troupes fan out to other Ilocano-speaking provinces for performances during town fiestas. In Bantay, llocos Sur, veteran sarswelista Barbaro Paat continues to put up his sarswela in May. Typical of Paat’s stories is one which depicts the plight of a wife, who has been sent away by her husband and mother-in-law, and the sufferings of their young daughter under the father’s new wife. Although its costumes are contemporary, Paat’s sarswela has all the ingredients of popular traditional sarswela—namely, the love songs, the scenes of melodrama, and, most of all, the comic scenes which the audience loves above all. Introduced from Spain in the 19th century, the drama (to be distinguished from the generic English term â€Å"drama†) is a play in verse and/or prose and usually in one act. As written by Filipinos at the turn of the century, it often revolves on an aspect of Filipino contemporary life, e. g. divorce, gambling, and other social vices, usually in the framework of a love story. During its golden age from 1900 to 1940, the drama was performed in a series of three-in-one performance, or by itself before a sarswela. Like the sarswela, it could be presented commercially or as a community activity, on a proscenium stage in a teatro or on an open-air rural entablado, using telon (theater curtain or backdrop) and appropriate props to denote setting. Although the drama is hardly ever staged today, it still enjoys immense popularity on radio, television or film, either as tear-jerking, sala-set melodrama popularly known as soap opera, or as comedies with a lot of slapstick or toilet humor. The drama as a Philippine form could be one of three types, depending on its emphasis: melodrama, comedy, or drama simboliko. The pre-World War II melodrama which aims to make people cry is typified by Veronidia, 1919, by Cirio H. Panganiban, which depicts the tragic death of a divorcee who only wants to visit her dying (first) husband. The comedy which entertains with laughter is exemplified by Julian Cruz Balmaseda’s Sino Ba Kayo? (Who Are You? ), 1943, which weaves its hilarious situations around the mistaken identities of the main characters—a widower and his pretty daughter, a widow (the widower’s new wife) and her handsome son (who turns out to be the boyfriend of the widower’s daughter), the male and female servants. The drama simboliko (allegorical drama), popular in Manila and environs from 1898 to 1910 as a vehicle of political protest, is exemplified by Juan Abad ’s Tanikalang Guinto (Golden Chain), 1902, and Aurelio V. Tolentino’s Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow), 1903. Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas chronicles the struggle of the Filipinos, here represented by Inangbayan (Mother Country), under the leadership of Taga-ilog (patriotic Filipino) to overcome the oppressors in the country’s history: the Chinese, the Spanish, and the Americans. Act I opens with Inangbayan reprimanding Asalhayop (Filipino collaborators) and his friends for feasting on the tombs of those who perished when Balintawak fell to the Chinese. Taga-ilog exhorts everyone to rise against Haring Bata, the Chinese King. For a fee, Asalhayop informs Haring Bata of the planned revolt, but is exposed by Inangbayan and burned alive by Taga-ilog for his treachery. The Filipinos launch the revolt against the Chinese and win a signal victory. But another power comes to the Islands, represented by Dilatnabulag (Spain) and Matanglawin (Spanish colonial government), who make a blood compact with Taga-ilog. In Act II the Halimau (Spanish friar) strips the natives of their little wealth. Taga-ilog defies him and is imprisoned. Ignoring Matanglawin’s orders to release Taga-ilog, Halimau forces Inangbayan to surrender all her riches in exchange for Taga-ilog’s freedom. Dahumpalay (Filipino collaborator) wants Taga-ilog shot, but instead is killed by Taga-ilog, who burns the traitor’s face and uses his clothes to escape from prison. Halimau orders Inangbayan buried alive, but the latter is liberated by the forces of Taga-ilog who finally overthrow the Spanish colonizers, even as the third colonial power, represented by Bagonsibol (America) and Malaynatin (the American insular government) arrive to pledge friendship with the Filipinos. Act III opens with women sewing the Philippine flag which will be raised when the new moon rises. Taga-ilog persuades Malaynatin to give the Filipinos their independence, but the latter is reluctant to do so. Malaynatin then falls asleep and in a dream sees Taga-ilog and his army preparing to fight America with cannons, air ships, and tanklike vehicles. In the end, Inangbayan begs for the country’s independence but is refused. But when young children kneel before Bagonsibol in support of Inangbayan, Bagonsibol’s heart softens and he grants the people freedom. In general, the drama and the sarswela represent a significant development in Philippine theater history, if only because they pioneered in a more realistic portrayal of Filipino life and culture, showcasing not only Filipino costumes and sets, but typical Filipino characters, dialogue, and situations as well. Moreover, unlike the colonial plays, these forms trained their sights on current issues of Philippine society, launching diatribes against those they perceived as social â€Å"offenders. † If these plays can be faulted, it would be for the simplistic way in which they solve the very real problems they present. Coincidences, accidents, and other dei ex machina are used to eliminate all obstacles and to come to a correct (not necessarily happy) ending for all concerned. By a stroke of the pen, the villains all mend their evil ways and become model members of the establishment church and community. The â€Å"seditious† dramas, however, are an exception because they dared to paint the bloody struggle of Filipinos against the American colonizers, hoping thus to enlighten and exhort the Filipino masses to support the revolutionary movement based in the mountains, and thus prevent colonization by another Western power. The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions Short as it was, the American colonial regime from 1901 to 1946 had a profound effect on 20th century Philippine theater, first in form and later in philosophy. This influence is seen in the Philippine bodabil (vaudeville), the Western plays presented in English or in Filipino translation/adapatation, and the original modern plays written by contemporary playwrights. Introduced in the 1920s from the United States, bodabil is not a play per se, but a potpourri of songs, dances, and comedy skits which showcase what is popular in the United States. As may be expected, the Filipinos who perform in bodabil cannot help but imitate, and naturally end up as the â€Å"local versions† of the American â€Å"originals. † During the Japanese Occupation, the bodabil began to include a short melodrama at the end, to accommodate the popular prewar film actors and actresses who could no longer appear in films since the Japanese had confiscated all film equipment. This expanded bodabil, which reigned supreme